The History of WWII Podcast XX
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[9] Hello, and thank you for listening to a History of World War II podcast, Episode 4, Mussolini, Part 2.
[10] The last episode ended with Mussolini recovering from a devastating howitzer accident.
[11] He returned home only to find his newspaper deep in debt.
[12] His time of fighting was over, but his struggles had just begun.
[13] By June 1917, Mussolini was back at his desk editing Il Popolo d 'Italia.
[14] To raise subscriptions, as well as his name, back to the national stage, he wasted no time in attacking the government for its lackluster persecution of Italy's war effort.
[15] According to Mussolini, what was needed was a total war effort from his country.
[16] Remove all frivolity, like concerts, racetracks, and coffee shops.
[17] The people needed to be organized like soldiers, and keeping his readers in mind, he declared that the peasants should be given land of their own.
[18] And, of course, the socialists should be shown no mercy.
[19] With that tone set, he went on to say that the nation needed a man who could do it all, one that loved his people, but could be violent if and when needed.
[20] But his messages, when first sitting behind the editor's desk again, were too extreme for the people in general, and it's possible he overestimated his own popularity, even though he just came home from the front, wounded.
[21] He did manage, not to mention he was the man needed, but everyone knew what he meant.
[22] But his paper did start to turn around.
[23] Mussolini went on in this vein for a while, and some have speculated that the last year of the war, as well as his own injuries, changed him, that it gave him an inkling of sincerity, and the better nature of his angel came to the surface for a while.
[24] And even though the people were not ready to lift Mussolini onto their shoulders and carry him to power, he did touch on a nerve concerning the handling of the war.
[25] In January 1918, the Prime Minister, Vittorio Orlando, tried to fulfill unsuccessfully Mussolini's message concerning leadership, so it would appear his political re -emergence was well underway.
[26] When the U .S. entered World War I on April 6, 1917, Mussolini conveniently forgot his hatred of capitalism.
[27] He called the U .S. President Wilson the Wise and complimented the U .S., but in the same article stated that Italy still needed a dictatorship for its problems.
[28] By contrast, what was happening in Russia, according to Mussolini, was an example of what could happen in Italy if they were not careful.
[29] Italy could end up losing the war, their lands, suffering a communist takeover, and everyone would be shot.
[30] The best way to avoid something like this, according to Mussolini, was to divide the country between those who served and those who did not.
[31] He recommended putting 100 ,000 women to work, which would free up more men, and Italy would find herself with an entirely new army to replace the casualties and POWs.
[32] But this modern attitude towards women would not last for long.
[33] He focused on the two groups that mattered.
[34] to an Italy still trying to survive, the soldiers and the producers.
[35] But the war ground down and ended November 11, 1918.
[36] Il Popolo d 'Italia celebrated the victory of the Entente.
[37] But as the paper went out to the people, Mussolini couldn't help but wonder who would care now what a left -leaning interventionalist thought.
[38] Mussolini knew that history showed that things would generally go back to the way they were, with a few on top and the mass down below.
[39] Mussolini recognized he needed a new horse if he was to even stay in the race.
[40] So as early as November 14th, days after the war was officially over, Mussolini was trying to organize his sort of people.
[41] His paper told Italy if the war was for the people, then the post -war era should be for the people as well.
[42] And his paper would be there for Italy as a centerpiece of news, ideas, and information for the people.
[43] But Mussolini's infant organization wasn't the only one.
[44] Many potential leaders tried to organize now that the focus was internal once again.
[45] They had been waiting for the war to end, while Mussolini tried changing things during the conflict.
[46] There were many rallies and discussions by various sized groups, but most were localized.
[47] However, two words or ideas seemed to have been a common factor within all those talks.
[48] One was national.
[49] The bloody war did have that effect on the country.
[50] The people were looking at the larger Italy and not just their surrounding area or village.
[51] The other was Fascio.
[52] The Socialists had been popular with their anti -war message as the conflict lasted month after month, but in the end, Italy was on the winning side.
[53] And hadn't the Socialists cried to get Italy out of the war?
[54] Didn't Mussolini, almost from the start, say Italy had to be involved?
[55] Didn't he scream to the press that Italy needed to be involved, fight together as a country?
[56] and didn't he pick the winning side?
[57] The Fasio, like the Socialists, were a very diverse group, but as the Socialists tried to explain their non -intervention but pro -Italy policy while they attacked returning soldiers, their message could not compete with Mussolini's bragging.
[58] The Socialists watched as at least 20 ex -servicemen leagues sprang up in February 1919, all anti -Socialist.
[59] Mussolini saw what was happening and tried to stay ahead of the curve.
[60] On March 23, 1919, he summoned, not invited, the ex -Servicemen's League's representatives and other ex -interventionists to Milan.
[61] The representatives that came would play major roles in the dictatorship to come.
[62] A program was sketched out for a national organization of Fassi di Combettimento, or Fassi soldiers.
[63] This was the formation of the fascist party.
[64] The name Fassi was taken from the Roman Fassis, which were a bundle of rods grouped around an axe that accompanied Roman consuls.
[65] It symbolized their power over life and death.
[66] Every political party or assembly needs a good quote to go out on, so Mussolini offered this to anyone thinking about snuffing out this group before it could go any further.
[67] We will defend our dead even if we dig trenches in the squares and the streets.
[68] The Socialists and Communists had been warned.
[69] This assembly and the quote created a frenzy, and even more chapters of fascists sprung up across central and northern Italy, but not in the south.
[70] The south was still held by the socialists.
[71] Like the Catholic Church, the fascists started to develop rituals, like wearing the black shirt of the ex -servicemen, as well as the chant, which meant to us, as in Italy belongs to us.
[72] One particular group that Mussolini wanted to co -opt was their DT.
[73] Their group was where the black shirts originated.
[74] They were fanatic ex -military who, when released, kept wearing their shirts proudly.
[75] Their leaders were Vecchi and Marionetti, but by now, some of the members saw Mussolini as the type of leader they longed for.
[76] The two leaders knew comparisons were being made, so they decided to act.
[77] On April 15, 1919, some of the Arditi marched to the headquarters of the socialist newspaper Avanti and sacked it.
[78] Two days later, Mussolini was being interviewed and tried to take responsibility after he saw how popular the attack was.
[79] He said the act was spontaneous, but that he took the whole moral responsibility for it.
[80] The socialists actually helped Mussolini by blaming him and not Veggie and Marinetti.
[81] Mussolini's name was on people's lips again, but his paper still struggled.
[82] The organizing of fascist groups was good for his ego, but he still needed to give the people a reason to buy his newspaper.
[83] Mussolini put on his professor's hat and wrote as if to children that he was now against England's possession of Egypt.
[84] He turned against Wilson of the U .S. and accused him of not understanding Europe.
[85] This blustering helped with sales, but had no staying power.
[86] In early June 1919, the final signatures were added to the Versailles Treaty, but Mussolini reminded everyone that this was not the end of history.
[87] He reminded his fellow countrymen to hold on to the spirit of Italy of 1915.
[88] when the war was being fought by all Italians.
[89] He then expressed anti -Semitic opinions about the Jews in Italy, but was likely taking on the tone of the conversations around him.
[90] Mussolini never forgot that a leader whose followers were going in another direction was, in the end, just a guy taking a walk.
[91] He continued to write about international events, but saved his acoustic style for the socialist in his country.
[92] The main reason for this was that his paper was still struggling.
[93] even though the fascist party was still growing.
[94] By August of 1919, he had to admit to himself the socialists were doing well and controlled the political agenda.
[95] The irony missed by the socialists, but not by Mussolini, was that their obsession with him kept his name around even when he himself had trouble being noticed.
[96] The government changed again, as it would many times before Mussolini came to power, and Orlando's replacement was the new Prime Minister Francesco Nitti.
[97] His main obstacle was dealing with Italy still being on a war footing regarding its policies in a time of peace.
[98] The socialists looked around at the government's extreme measures and control and asked themselves if now was the time for revolution.
[99] More people were joining them, and they looked to be in a good position for the coming elections in November.
[100] Mussolini did his best to get his fascist candidates ready.
[101] He printed a list of issues for the voters to dwell on.
[102] First, he wanted to tax the war profits.
[103] Next, he wanted to lower the voting age, since young people seemed to be coming his way.
[104] He ended with the idea that the workday should be set at eight hours.
[105] But the socialist movement still chugged along nicely, and Mussolini saw he needed to do more.
[106] Even though his paper was just holding on, he managed to get enough money together to found Il Facio, which was a journal to help define his movement in August 1919.
[107] Again, events outside Mussolini's control appeared, and Mussolini, like everyone else, had to adapt.
[108] On September 12, 1919, a poet, D 'Annunzio, led a thousand men to the small port city of Fiume, in modern -day Croatia, in the northern Adriatic.
[109] He set up a dictatorship there.
[110] Mussolini was jealous, but the move was popular with the fascists, so he praised the event, although rhetorically.
[111] Few may have been promised to Yugoslavia in the Treaty of London, but D 'Annunzio claimed that the Italians living there had the right of self -determination.
[112] Of course, the non -Italians there were ignored.
[113] Mussolini visited there October 7th, but had to come back for the first National Congress of Fassi dei Combattimento set for October 9th and 10th.
[114] Mussolini's speech was purposefully opaque to hopefully include as many people as possible since he was standing for election as well in Milan.
[115] But it was not Mussolini's time.
[116] He received less than 5 ,000 votes.
[117] The Socialists did predictably well, capturing 156 of the 508 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.
[118] On November 19, Avanti declared that the revolution was born, but Mussolini was unrepentant.
[119] By the end of 1919...
[120] The Fassi branches were barely hanging on, but Mussolini wrote that the socialist would not grow forever.
[121] That was the nature of things.
[122] Life was a series of extreme highs and lows for Mussolini, and he seemed to just go along, keeping an eye on the bigger picture.
[123] At least, that was the image he conveyed in his paper.
[124] After the election, the Fassi started acquiring converts from other parties due to what's known today in politics as buyer's remorse.
[125] But the newer members were not fans of Mussolini.
[126] and only tolerated Vecci and Marionetti.
[127] Mussolini, seeing the reality of the situation, started looking for room on the political right.
[128] People paid for what they'd done, felt righteous.
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[130] Mussolini knew he had to keep his options open until he was ready to make his move and kept up his articles attacking the socialists.
[131] At the Second Fascist Congress, Mussolini used his speech to look for new allies for his coming transformation.
[132] He said the Vatican's power could not be denied.
[133] The church should be wedded to the nation.
[134] and King Victor Emmanuel III should be treated with respect.
[135] He granted there should be an eventual move to a republic, after a dictatorship restored Italy again, but all in good time.
[136] He ended with a line about the bureaucrats being given a pay raise.
[137] The speech was well received, mostly because the new fasted directorate had broke from Vecci and Marinetti and had gone to the right as well.
[138] Early in 1920, the economy stuttered.
[139] and Prime Minister Nitti's days were numbered.
[140] On June 9th, Nitti resigned and was replaced by Giovanni Gialitti.
[141] He was near 80, experienced, and not given to moments of excitement.
[142] But he was neutral during the war, so the fascists lined up against him.
[143] By late August of 1920, the Popolari were letting their frustration over the troubled economy be known by sitting stage -ins in thousands of factories.
[144] Gialitti's experience served him well.
[145] He told the industrialists he would not use troops to force the workers out and start a real revolution.
[146] He managed to separate the bankers from the hardline factory owners, thus weakening their influence on him.
[147] He then talked favorably about workers owning shares and the companies they worked in.
[148] Geoledia's combinations of tactics worked, and by the end of September, the occupations were over.
[149] Mussolini threw his two cents into the fray by telling the strikers to cease.
[150] The truth is, he was starting to get contributions from big business and tried to help them out.
[151] He needed cash and some political stability because he had found the new hobby of flying, which was taking up his time and resources.
[152] He loved the control and the freedom.
[153] He took lessons and flew whenever the chance came about.
[154] So we can add that to dueling, fencing, and adultery.
[155] giolini next settled the fiume question by having the italian army push d 'annuncio and his men out as a rival on the right to mussolini d 'annuncio was now eliminated mussolini kept his writing up declaring the versailles treaty should be changed and certain territories annexed by italy he declared the jews tolerable as long as they continue to fight and die for italy it's difficult to tell his true degree of anti -semitism His announcement was mostly about not being out of distance on the right.
[156] His love affair with Margarita Sarfati, a Jew, showed what was most important to Mussolini.
[157] She was the rich, influential art critic of Avanti.
[158] Years later, when fascist racial legislation was passed, he made sure she made it to New York.
[159] Mussolini pitched to the people the line that fascist violence was wrapped in nationalism, while the socialists did not bother explaining their violent acts because, frankly, they did not think they needed to.
[160] But Mussolini used their lack of an explanation to give their acts a negative, unpatriotic spin.
[161] This tactic worked, and more fascist groups were created while every violent act by the socialists was now seen in a harsher light.
[162] By the end of 1920, there were numerous independent fascist groups, and some had more money than others.
[163] Mussolini rode these small waves and weaved them into something more with his writings.
[164] The more affluent groups purchased guns and vehicles and attacked the socialists more successfully.
[165] So in early 1921, and through the summer, socialist power dwindled.
[166] But also, left -leaning fascists found themselves frozen out of organizations.
[167] The fascists were changing.
[168] In May 1921, Giolitti called for elections with the idea of building a loose national bloc of the parties, and he would include the fascists.
[169] Mussolini, ever the realist, was excited by this idea.
[170] He was not like Hitler, who wanted everything on his terms.
[171] Mussolini may have lied as a writer and a publisher, but he rarely lied to himself about any situation and how it affected him.
[172] The socialists lost 20 % of their seats in the chamber of deputies.
[173] The fascists got 35 seats, and one of those was for Mussolini from Milan.
[174] He had finally made it.
[175] Mussolini moved into an elegant hotel and enjoyed the fleshpots of Rome.
[176] But he immediately hated the process of politics.
[177] There was no action, just talking and planning.
[178] He spoke as if the few fascists there were of an accord, but that was not the case.
[179] On June 27th, Giolini's government collapsed due to a lack of support.
[180] Mussolini certainly did his part by announcing, as he settled into the chamber, that he would be on the far right, opposed to the Prime Minister, who had included him in his plans for a moderate, compromising government.
[181] The new Prime Minister, Ivano Bonomi, came into office, complemented the energy of the fascists, and then used the army to break up their growing violence.
[182] He demanded an understanding between the fascists and the socialists.
[183] So Mussolini, realizing the situation, agreed on August 2, 1921 to Bonomi's Pact of Peace.
[184] Mussolini then blamed the newer members of the fascist groups and was not altogether wrong.
[185] They, for their part, were very upset with him and continued on as best they could, despite his backing down and the government forces being ramped up against them.
[186] Several men tried to replace Mussolini as leader.
[187] but for various reasons could not.
[188] It came down to each of them missing some critical element, such as charisma, confidence, or worthiness.
[189] Mussolini gambled everything as he watched each man fail the leadership test for the petulant fascist and resigned on August 18th from the executive committee of Fassi dei Combattimento.
[190] He waited a week and then only resumed his writing.
[191] Taking the temperature of the situation, He said now was the time for the fascists to become a real political party with organization, structure, and a program.
[192] He left out and also needed a leader.
[193] In September in Ravenna, there was an attack on some reds while a monument of Dante was being raised.
[194] Fascist violence increased and slowly became more organized.
[195] Socialist momentum broke and began to recede even more.
[196] Mussolini, although on the outside, balanced a thin line of approving of each violent act within the narrow view of saving the nation and his promise to the Prime Minister.
[197] But he simply had to stay ahead of events.
[198] While the fascists were all about attacking the socialists, the socialists had other enemies, such as the mafia in the South, and were filling it on all sides.
[199] He chose now to write articles stating the movement needed a man, and then found something nice to say about each individual fascist group.
[200] In early November of 1921, the Fascist Party Congress was meeting, so Mussolini headed to Rome.
[201] He calculated he had about one -third of the votes needed to be made leader, but sniffed out the other potential leaders.
[202] He went around and either bought them off with the help of Margherita Savati, or outmaneuvered them in the next couple of days.
[203] During the Congress, the Raz...
[204] an Ethiopian word that meant tribal chief and used by the fascists, could or would not unite against Mussolini despite his pact of peace with Prime Minister Bonomi.
[205] For those few remaining who would not stand aside, blocking his path to power, he gave in to their top demand and walked away from the pact of peace.
[206] Mussolini would always be suspicious of others, but realized they needed him more than he needed them.
[207] Now, as leader, Mussolini moved quickly to organize the groups of local fascists.
[208] He created the position of a traveling inspector general, much like a political officer, checking on loyalty and adhering to Mussolini's dictates.
[209] He then replaced the more independent thinkers of the higher -ups and filled those positions with men loyal to Mussolini.
[210] By February of 1922, his reach went as far as organizing groups at universities and major cities.
[211] The Bonomi government suffered from the fascists completely throwing off the pact of peace.
[212] Civil war seemed likely.
[213] The economic crisis showed it had not gone away when a major bank failed, wiping out many savings accounts.
[214] Bonomi resigned soon after.
[215] On February 26, 1922, another coalition government, this time under Luigi Facta, came to power.
[216] When it came to curbing violence, Facta was no Bonomi, and the violence only increased.
[217] By the summer, the fascists were attacking red elements and socialists at will with no government response.
[218] Civil war now seemed inevitable.
[219] Unfortunately for their victims, most times the fascists did not get solid proof of party affiliation before the fighting started.
[220] By September, the fascists were attacking closer to Rome.
[221] Some fascists wanted to march on the Eternal City, but Mussolini held back.
[222] It was a delicate balancing act because Mussolini really wasn't conducting the attacks.
[223] They were organized and carried out by those below him.
[224] But it had to appear that he was the only fascist that mattered, that he was in control.
[225] It's possible his own lieutenants did not realize the charade they participated in until later.
[226] Mussolini kept trying to turn that equation around.
[227] Behind all this violence, Mussolini was trying to be seen as a statesman, not as a guerrilla leader.
[228] He was playing his own complicated game of destabilizing the current cabinet with one hand while trying to get appointed into the next cabinet with the other.
[229] He focused his energy as being seen as the only man with the correct solution.
[230] He loudly criticized any other ideas to fix things.
[231] He realized long ago, once you made it to the top, you might be moved around a bit, but the major players never changed.
[232] If he could get some position in government, it would provide him with a good living and respect.
[233] the desire of his whole life.
[234] While tension and expectations by the fascists and Italy at large mounted, Mussolini asked himself, would a march on Rome mean government power or becoming just another outlaw?
[235] Besides, there were three other influential men who might jump back in at any moment and offer themselves to save Italy.
[236] The first was Salandra, who was the furthest on the right.
[237] Mussolini felt him out through intermediaries, but kept his options open.
[238] Mussolini praised the former prime minister and by September got a statement from him that he thought of himself as an honorary fascist.
[239] He was now removed as a threat.
[240] The second was another former prime minister, Orlando, and they started talking in July through a third party, but the talks failed.
[241] Mussolini was left with the promise of maybe making him a foreign minister.
[242] It wasn't everything he wanted, but it was still something.
[243] It was a clear sign that Mussolini's reputation was growing.
[244] The last was Giolitti, the recent prime minister.
[245] To most, he was too old, but still saw himself as the savior of Italy.
[246] Mussolini knew he had to defeat him, or be defeated.
[247] Again by a third party, because pride had to be protected in case talks went badly.
[248] So Mussolini opened up with an ingratiating gesture.
[249] He said that Giolitti should be the leader of the next cabinet.
[250] But then added, in a conspiratorial whisper, if only to keep Orlando out.
[251] His playing them against each other would bear fruit later.
[252] On October 24, 1922, another conference was assembled, which only increased the already tense situation.
[253] His followers wanted a coup d 'etat, but Mussolini did not want to fight.
[254] He wanted to be offered a position.
[255] Then Mussolini showed why he was in charge, why he was the only one to bring about the fascist revolution.
[256] He knew it was better to get what you wanted through political wrangling and not force.
[257] He would have to work with these people in the future.
[258] He first raised tension on purpose to neutralize the army.
[259] He knew his ragtag group could not fight them, the crowd following him in trouble achieving victory over the autumn rains and following their maps.
[260] But Mussolini told a leading general that if a fight ensued, there would be massive casualties on both sides, and no general wants to participate in killing his own countrymen.
[261] Now he sought to soften up the king.
[262] King Victor Emmanuel III was as insecure as the next man, and Mussolini played on that.
[263] Mussolini said the king's cousin, the Duke of Vocasta, was a better soldier, taller, and would make a better king, if given the chance.
[264] Each of these measures worked brilliantly.
[265] Those who could realistically stop him were now stifled with fear and assumed he would march on Rome any day.
[266] As the mob organized for Rome, his three rivals watched for moves from each other.
[267] to see who would move first.
[268] They didn't unite and would rather see Mussolini get their prime minister position than one of the other two hated rivals.
[269] The army chiefs told the king the army was loyal, but did not test that loyalty by attacking the fascists.
[270] The Vatican stayed out of it.
[271] Prime Minister Facta made a half -hearted attempt to intimidate the fascist rabble by declaring martial law, but it was not imposed with any will by officials.
[272] So on October 29, 1922, Mussolini received a call from King Victor Emmanuel III to form a cabinet for a coalition government.
[273] Mussolini's press release said he was going to Rome wearing his black shirt as a proud fascist.
[274] He also went with 300 ,000 followers who organized a victory parade in Rome.
[275] Parade may be the wrong word, as there was some violence and damage to the city.
[276] So on October 31, at age 39, Benito Mussolini was sworn in as the youngest prime minister in history.
[277] A journalist remarked that his country was on the verge of madness.
[278] His mistress, Margherita Sarfatti, said that he would restore style to the Italian people.
[279] Both were right.
[280] Next time, we'll cover Il Duce taking the reins of government while still trying to rein in his enthusiastic fascist quote -unquote followers.
[281] Welcome to True Spies, the podcast that takes you deep inside the greatest secret missions of all time.
[282] Suddenly out of the dark it's appeared in love.
[283] You'll meet the people who live life undercover.
[284] What do they know?
[285] What are their skills?
[286] And what would you do in their position?
[287] Vengeance felt good.
[288] Seeing these people pay for what they'd done felt righteous.
[289] True Spies, from Spyscape Studios, wherever you get your podcasts.